Targum Onkelos

As Aramaic displaces Hebrew as the spoken language, an authoritative Aramaic translation of the Torah takes shape, traditionally attributed to the convert Onkelos. It renders the text closely but consistently softens anthropomorphic descriptions of God, translating physical language into terms of divine word or presence. It is read aloud verse by verse alongside the Hebrew in synagogue, and later becomes required weekly study. Its interpretive choices function as the earliest systematic commentary on the Torah, shaping how the text is understood before any commentary is written.